Solutions for NCERT Class 7 History Our Pasts ll Chapter 6 ‘Devotional Paths to the Divine’

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Find NCERT Solutions for Class 7 History Chapter 6 ‘Devotional Paths to the Divine’ here

1. Match the following:

The Buddha	Namghar
Shankaradeva	Worship of Vishnu
Nizamuddin Auliya	questioned social differences
Nayanars	Sufi saint
Alvars	Worship of Shiva

Answer:

The Buddha	questioned social differences
Shankaradeva	Namghar
Nizamuddin Auliya	Sufi saint
Nayanars	Worship of Shiva
Alvars	Worship of Vishnu

2. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Shankara was an advocate of __________.

(b) Ramanuja was influenced by the ___________.

(c) ________,  _________ and __________ were advocates of Virashaivism.

(d) __________ was an important centre of the Bhakti tradition in Maharashtra.

Answer:

 (a) Shankara was an advocate of Advaita.

(b) Ramanuja was influenced by the Alvars.

(c) Basavanna, Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi were advocates of Virashaivism.

(d) Vitthala temple was an important centre of the Bhakti tradition in Maharashtra.

3. Describe the beliefs and practices of the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis.
Answer:

The beliefs and practices of the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis were as follows:

• The Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis advocated renunciation of the material world. For them, the path to salvation lay in meditating on the formless Ultimate reality and the attainment of oneness with it.
  
  
• To achieve this end, they stressed the importance of intense training of the mind and body through ‘yogasanas’, breathing exercises and meditation.
  
  
• They were critical of the rituals and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order.
  
  

These groups became popular among people from ‘low” castes. Their criticism of conventional religion prepared the ground for devotional religion to become a popular force in Northern India.

4. What were the major ideas expressed by Kabir? How did he express these?
Answer:

 Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete, vehement rejection of the major religious traditions:

• His teachings openly mocked all forms of external worship of both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam, the pre-eminence of the priestly classes, and the caste system.
• He believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to salvation and liberation was through bhakti or devotion.
• The language of his poetry was a form of spoken Hindi which was widely understood by ordinary and common people. He also sometimes used cryptic language, which was difficult to understand and follow.
• He drew his followers from among both Hindus and Muslims.

We came to know about his ideas from a huge collection of verses called ‘sakhis’ and ‘pads ‘which is said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers. Some of these verses were later collected and preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak.

5. What were the major beliefs and practices of the Sufis?
Answer:

Sufis were Muslim mystics who rejected outward religiosity, emphasized love, devotion to God and compassion towards all fellow human beings. They composed poems expressing their feelings and developed elaborate methods of training to help their followers attain salvation through intense devotion and love for God.

• The Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
• They favoured a more personal devotion to God. They sought union with God much as a lover seeks his beloved with a disregard for the world.
• Like the saint-poets, the Sufis too composed poems to express their feelings and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables developed around them.
•  They developed elaborate methods of training the heart to see the world in a different way using ‘Zikr'(chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation, sama (singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control, etc., under the guidance of a master or Pir.
• This led to the emergence of the ‘silsilas’, a spiritual genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method of instruction and ritual practice.
• They held assemblies in their Khanqahs where devotees of all kinds including royalty and nobility assembled to discuss spiritual matters, sought blessings of rhe saints to solve worldly problems, or simply attended the music and dance sessions.

6. Why do you think many teachers rejected prevalent religious beliefs and practices?

Answer: 

Many teachers rejected prevalent religious beliefs and discriminatory practices because they fostered inequality in society, as the lower castes were oppressed by the upper castes. They believed in the power of personal devotion and in the idea of one Supreme God. Also, that every individual had the right to worship God irrespective of caste or creed.

They also believed that the prevalent religious beliefs were based on excessive ritualism and outward display of piety.

7. What were the major teachings of Baba Guru Nanak?

Answer:

The major teachings of Guru Nanak may be summarised as follows:

• Baba Guru Nanak emphasized the importance of the worship of one God.
• He insisted that caste, creed or or gender were irrelevant for attaining liberation
• His idea of liberation was not that of a state of inert bliss, but rather the pursuit of an active life with a strong sense of social commitment.
• The essence of his teaching was ‘nam,’ ‘dan’, and ‘isnan’ which meant right worship, welfare of others, and purity of conduct.
• Nam-japna, kirt-kama, and vand Chakhna is how his teachings are now remembered and also underline the importance of right belief, and worship, honest living and helping others.
• He promoted the idea of equality.

8. For either the Virashaivas or the saints of Maharashtra, discuss their attitude towards caste.

Answer:

The attitude of Virashaivas towards caste:

The Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women. They also opposed all forms of rituals and idol worship. They wished for a society where all people irrespective of their backgrounds could live in harmony without any distinction between high and low, or rich and poor.

The attitude of the saints of Maharastra towards caste:

During the thirteenth to seventeenth centuries, Maharastra saw a great number of saint poets like Gyaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, and Tukaram as well as women like Sakubai and the family of Chokhamela who belonged to the ‘untouchable’ Mahar caste. These saint -poets rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety, social differences based on birth and the unfair treatment of women.

9. Why do you think ordinary people preserved the memory of Mirabai?

Ordinary people preserve the memory of Mirabai because:

• She was a Rajput princess who renounced her worldly status and chose to lead a simple life amidst ordinary people.
• Her songs openly challenged the norms of ‘upper’ castes and thus became popular with the masses in Rajasthan and Gujrat.
• She was an ardent devotee of Krishna and wanted to spend her life in worshipping him. She composed many bhajans expressing her ardent devotion which were very popular.
• She assumed a place of importance in the bhakti movement.

Let’s do

10. Find out whether in your neighbourhood there are any dargahs, gurudwaras or temples associated with saints of the bhakti tradition in your neighbourhood. Visit any one of these and describe what you see and hear.

Answer:

I visited Nizamuddin Dargah in South Delhi. It is a Dargah dedicated to the Sufi teacher Nizamuddin Auliya.

On entering the Dargah I felt the tranquil and peaceful ambience which was a big contrast with the bustling city outside.

The dargah complex has various chambers, a courtyard and a central shrine. The architecture of the central dome, the minarets and the intricately marble carvings reminded me of the Mughal architecture.

The courtyard was filled with devotees seeking blessings the fragrance of incense filled the air. People from all walks of life and of all faiths could be seen and the atmosphere was inclusive. Many people recited verses and offered their prayers peacefully. They offered chadars and flowers as a token of their devotion.

It was heartening to see people from different faiths interacting harmoniously and peacefully.

I was told that there are special quawali sessions on a couple of days a week. I wish to attend one such session soon as I am told they are soulful expressions of love, devotion and spirituality.

11. For any of the saint-poets whose compositions have been included in this chapter, find out more about their works, noting down other poems. Find out whether these are sung, how they are sung, and what the poets wrote about.

Answer:

Tukaram

Tukaram was a 17^th century Marathi saint who is revered for his devotional songs which sing of love and surrender to God. His poetry reflects his deep attachment to God and his unwavering faith.

 Tukaram is believed to have written over 4,000 ‘abhaṅgas’, most of which were addressed to the god Viṭthala of Pandharpur. 

They are informal, simple, direct and fuse folk tales with deep spiritual themes which appealed to the common people who sang them.

 But these were written down much after this death so there are controversies surrounding the actual number of poems and also which ones are to be attributed to him because many inconsistent manuscripts were found.

They are sung as abhangs which is a traditional devotional song from Maharastra. They are tuneful and rhythmic and often sung to the accompaniment of the harmonium and the tambourines.

12. There are several saint-poets whose names have been mentioned but their works have not been included in the chapter. Find out more about the language in which they composed, whether their compositions were sung, and what their compositions were about.

Answer:

Jayadeva

The poet Jayadeva was a 12^th century poet who composed the “Gita Govinda” in Sanskrit.

It is one of the earliest musical texts in which the author indicates the exact ‘raga’ and ‘tala’ (rhythm) in which to sing the songs.

The Gita Govinda describes the love of the divine cowherd Krishna for his favourite among the Gopis (wives and daughters of cowherds). It presents the lovers’ attraction, yearning, estrangement and reconciliation.

There are 24 songs which were composed in different ragas and inspired subsequent poetry and paintings in the bhakti tradition of Radha and Krishna across India.

Songs from the Gita Govinda continue to be sung in temples, during festivals and at kirtanas. “Gita Govinda” of jayadeva is sung in the style of Odissi music since the time of Jayadeva himself.

Solutions for In-Text questions of NCERT Class 7 History Our Pasts ll Chapter 6 ‘Devotional Paths to the Divine’

Textbook page no 62

1. You can observe this process of local myths and legends receiving wider acceptance even today. Can you find some examples around you?

Answer:

The first example that comes to mind is that of the local myth surrounding the grand festivities of Durga Puja in West Bengal.

It is believed that the Goddess Durga with her children descend from the snowy heights of Kailash and spend a few days with her mother Menaka.

It is a joyful celebration and everyone participates in it.

On Vijaya Dashami when it is believed that Ma Durga returns to Kailash, people bid her a tearful farewell.

Textbook page no 63

2. How does the poet describe his relationship with the deity?

Answer:

The poet Manikkavasagar feels as if the Lord has possessed his body and set him free from sorrow, birth, death and illusion.

 Nothing can set him apart from God anymore because he is filled with light and divine blessings as he has found refuge in God.

Textbook Page no 64

3. Try and find out more about the ideas of Shankara or Ramanuja

Answer:

Shankara:

Shankara’s philosophy is grounded in Advaita Vedanta, which asserts the ultimate reality of Brahman, the unchanging and indivisible source of all existence. He argued that the world of appearances (Maya) is an illusion, and the true nature of reality is non-dual (Advaita) and beyond all distinctions.

 Shankara emphasized that ignorance (Avidya) is the cause of suffering and bondage. He advocated for the pursuit of knowledge (Jnana) to realize the unity of the individual soul (Atman) with Brahman, leading to liberation (Moksha) from the cycle of birth and death (Samsara).

Shankara taught that the individual soul (Atman) is identical to Brahman, the ultimate reality. By realizing this identity through self-inquiry and meditation, one transcends the illusion of separateness and attains liberation.

Ramanuja:

Ramanuja’s philosophy is based on Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, which translates to “qualified non-dualism.” He argued that while the world and individual souls are part of Brahman, they have a distinct reality and are interconnected.

 Ramanuja emphasized the path of devotion (Bhakti) as a means to reach God. He believed that surrendering to a personal deity, usually identified with Lord Vishnu, fosters a loving relationship and leads to liberation.

Ramanuja stressed the interconnectedness of all beings. He viewed service to others (Kainkarya) as an essential aspect of spiritual practice.

 Ramanuja highlighted the importance of ethical conduct (Dharma) as a means to purify the mind and cultivate virtues. He believed that righteous living is crucial for spiritual progress.

Textbook Page no 65

4. What is the temple that Basavanna is offering to God?

Answer:

Basavanna is offering his body as a temple for God to reside in. His compares his legs to pillars, his body to a shrine and his head to a golden dome to lodge the lord.

Textbook Page no 66

5. Discuss the ideas about the social order expressed in these compositions of Sant Tukaram and Chokhamela’s son.

Answer:

The ideas expressed in the compositions of Sant Tukaram and Chokhamela’s son are discussed below:

Sant Tukaram’s abhang:

It reflects the core values of Bhakti philosophy, namely social equality and compassion.

He says a true saint is one who has compassion for the battered and the oppressed in society, recognising the divine in them for God resides in those who are weak and marginalised and treats them as his own children.

Tukaram equates such empathetic individuals with the divine presence suggesting that their compassion is like God’s love and compassion.

Tukaram questions the existing social hierarchy by emphasizing equality of all individuals. Each and every forsaken person is worthy of love and care regardless of social status.

Chokhamela’s son’s abhang:

It is a poignant critique of the prevailing caste-based discrimination and societal injustice.

The abhang confronts God directly, accusing Him of creating an unfair caste-based system that has relegated certain individuals to low status. The speaker demands that God acknowledge this fact.

The speaker questions why God should not be ashamed of creating a social order where certain individuals are marginalized and treated as “low caste.”

 The speaker also asks why God would bestow life upon them only to subject them to a life of struggle and suffering.

Both abhangs express a deep concern for social justice, inclusivity, and the need to challenge and transform oppressive social orders. They exemplify the Bhakti tradition’s emphasis on personal experience, devotion, and a direct relationship with the divine, transcending societal norms and hierarchies.

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Textbook Page no 72

6. Why do you think Mirabai left the Rana’s palace?

Answer:

Mirabai’s left the Rana’s palace because of her devotion to Lord Krishna and her rejection of worldly norms and royal expectations.

 Mirabai, a fervent devotee, chose a path of spiritual devotion that contradicted the norms and expectations of her royal life.

She desired to break free from the conventional rules and decorum of princely existence.

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Textbook Page no 73

7. In what ways are the ideas in this poem similar to or different from those of Basavanna and Jalaluddin Rumi?

Answer:

Kabir’s composition reflects his distinctive blend of spiritual insights, which share some similarities with Basavanna and Jalaluddin Rumi while differing in other aspects:

Similarities:

• Kabir’s composition mirrors Basavanna and Rumi by emphasizing universal spirituality and inner sincerity.
• All three poets criticize superficial rituals.
• Kabir, Basavanna, and Rumi advocate for seeking the Divine within oneself. Kabir’s line “Search for him in your heart, in the heart of your heart; There he dwells, Rahim-Ram” resonates with Basavanna’s “God is within you” and Rumi’s exploration of the inner self.

Differences:

• Kabir uniquely blends references to Allah and Ram, reflecting his syncretic approach.
• While Kabir addresses social issues and the rationale behind rituals, Basavanna challenges discrimination, and Rumi focuses on divine love.
• Language varies, as Kabir and Basavanna use regional languages and Rumi composes in Persian.

Extra Questions NCERT Class 7 History Our Pasts ll Chapter 6 ‘Devotional Paths to the Divine’

A. Multiple Choice type Questions (MCQ)

1. How many Alvars were there?

(i) 12
(ii) 66
(iii) 25
(iv) None of the above

2. Which Hindu deity was not worshipped during the Bhakti movement?

(i) Shiva
(ii) Durga
(iii) Brahma
(iv) Krishna

3. What is a religious biography called?

(i) autobiography
(ii) hagiography
(iii) calligraphy
(iv) Bibliography

4. Akkamahadevi was the companion of _____________.

(i) Ramanuja
(ii) Shankara
(iii) Basavanna
(iv) None of the above

5. Which caste did Chokhamela belong to?

(i) Mahar
(ii) Brahmin
(iii) Kshatriya
(iv) None of the above

6. Meerabai became a disciple of ___________.

(i) Surdas
(ii) Ravidas
(iii) Shankaradeva
(iv) None of the above

7. Kabir’s bhajans were preserved in ____________.
(i) Punch Vani
(ii) Bijak
(iii) Guru Granth Sahib
(iv) All of these

8. Vitthala is a form of ____________
(i) Vishnu
(ii) Ganesha
(iii) Shiva
(iv) None of these

9. The Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis popularised devotional religion in  ________India

(i) eastern
(ii) western
(iii) northern
(iv) southern

10. The Sufi masters held assemblies in their ________.

(i) dargahs
(ii) courtyards
(iii) namghars
(iv) khanqahs

Answer:

1. (i) 12
2. (iii) Brahma
3. (ii) hagiography
4. (iii) Basavanna
5. (i) Mahar
6.(ii) Ravidas
7. (iv) All of these
8. (i) Vishnu
9. (iii) northern
10. (iv) khanqahs

B. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the box to complete the following sentences:

Adi Granth

monotheism

weavers

isnan

Sadi

1. Kabir was brought up by a family of ____________settled in or near the city of Varanasi.

2. Another name for Guru Granth Sahib is  __________.

3.Among the great Sufi saints were Ghazzali, Rumi and _________.

4. The essence of Guru Nanak’s teachings was nam, dan and _______.

5. Islam propagated strict __________ or submission to one God.

Answer:

1. Kabir was brought up by a family of weavers settled in or near the city of Varanasi.

2. Another name for Guru Granth Sahib is  Adi Granth.

3. Among the great Sufi saints were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.

4. The essence of Guru Nanak’s teachings was nam, dan and isnan.

5. islam propagated strict monotheism or submission to one God.

C. Match the words in column A with those in column B

A	B
Nayanars	Divya Prabandham
Alvar	Kirtana Ghosha
Tulsidas	Gita Govinda
Shankaradeva	Tevaram and Tiruvacakam
Jayadeva	Ramcharitmanas

Answer:

A	B
Nayanars	Tevaram and Tiruvacakam
Alvar	Divya Prabandham
Tulsidas	Ramcharitmanas
Shankaradeva	Kirtana Ghosha
Jayadeva	Gita Govinda

D. State whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE:

1.There were 63 Nayanars who belonged to different caste backgrounds.

2. The Virashaiva movement was intitated by Basavanna and his companions Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century.

3. ‘Zikr’ meant a dance performed by the Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis.

4. Shankaradeva of Assam began the practice of setting up ‘namghars or houses of recitation and prayer.

5. The Nayanars were devotees of Lord Vishnu.

Answer:

1. True – they belonged to castes such as potters, “untouchable” workers,peasants, hunters, soldiers, brahmanas and chiefs.

2. True

3. False – : ‘Zikr’ is a term used by Sufis to indicate the chanting of a name or sacred formula.

4. True

5. False – The Nayanars were saints devoted to Shiva.

E.  Very Short Answer type Questions:

1. What became a part of Puranic stories?
Answer: 
Local myths and legends became a part of Puranic stories.

2. Who were the Pulaiyar and the Panars?
Answer:
They were untouchables castes from whose ranks Nayanar and Alvar saints emerged from the 7^th to the 9^th centuries.

3. What is abhang? 
Answer: 
 It is a Marathi devotional hymn.

4. Name any two Nayanars.
Answer:
 Appar and Manikkavasagar.

5. What do you understand by Shariat?
Answer:
The holy law developed by Muslim scholars is known as Shariat.

6. What is the name of the earliest example of Tamil literature which was composed during the early centuries of the Common Era?
Answer:
Sangam literature is the earliest Tamil literature which was composed during the early centuries of the Common Era.

7. Name two great  Sufis from Central Asia.
Answer:
Ghazzali and Rumi

8. What do you inderstand by  ‘dharmsal”?
Answer:
The sacred place created by Baba Guru Nanak was known as dharmsal. It is now known as     
Gurudwara.

9. Which Guru compiled the compositions of Guru Nanak?
Answer:
Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Guru Nanak.

10. What are ‘silsilas’?
Answer:
‘Silsilas’ are a spiritual genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method (tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice.

F. Short Answer Type Questions:

1. What did Ramanuja propound?

Answer:  

He propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained distinct.

2. Whom did Baba Guru Nanak name as his successor?

Answer:

Baba Guru Nanak appointed one of his followers called Lehna as his successor. Lehna later came to be known as Guru Angad, signifying that he was a part of Baba Guru Nanak himself.

3. Who advocated intense training of the mind and body through ‘yogasanas’, breathing techniques and meditation?

Answer:

The Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis advocated that intense training of the mind and body through ‘yogasanas’, breathing exercises, and meditation on the formless Ultimate reality would help to attain salvation.

4. How did the Sufis train the heart to look at the world in a different way?

Answer:

The Sufis developed elaborate methods of training using ‘Zikr’ (chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation, ‘sama’(singing),’ raqs’(dancing), discussion of parables, breath control, etc. under the guidance of a master or ‘pir’.

5. Who was Shankaradeva?

Answer:

In late fifteenth century, Shankaradeva of Assam emphasized devotion of Vishnu. The essence of Shankardeva’s devotion came to be known as “Eka sarana nama dharma’ (supreme surrender to the One).

The teachings of Shankaradeva were based on the ‘Bhagavad Gita’ and ‘Bhagavata Purana’.

He also encouraged the establishment of ‘satra’ or monasteries for transmission of knowledge. He composed poems and plays in Assamese. major compositions included ‘Kirtana Ghosa”.

He began the practice of setting up ‘namghars’ which were houses of recitation and prayer and that practice still continues to date.

6. Who were the saints of Maharashtra? What were their ideas and teachings?

Answer:

From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries a great number of saint-poets emerged whose songs in simple Marathi continue to inspire people.

The most important amongst them were Gyaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram as well as women like Sakubai and the family of Chokhamela who belonged to the untouchable Mahar caste.

The saints of Maharashtra rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and faith and social differences based on birth.

They even spurned the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their families, earning their livelihood like any other people while serving fellow human beings in need.

 A new humanist idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others pain.

7. Who were predominantly the followers of Guru Nanak?

Answer:

The followers of Guru Nanak belonged to a number of castes but agriculturists, artisans, traders and craftsperson were predominant.

This was because Guru Nanak was determined that his followers must be householders and should adopt productive and useful occupations.

People should have an active life with a strong sense of social commitment. They were also expected to contribute to the general funds of the community of followers.

8.  Why did The Mughal emperor Jahangir order the execution of guru Arjan in 1606?

Answer:

By the beginning of the 17^th century the town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) had developed around the central gurudwara called ‘Harmandir Sahib’(Golden Temple).

It was virtually self-governed and modern historians refer to the early seventeenth century Sikh community as ‘a state within a state’.

Considering the Sikhs as a potential threat, the Mughal emperor ordered the execution of Guru Arjan in 1606.

9. How and when did Khalsa Panth emerge?

Answer:

In the seventeenth century, the Sikh movement began to get politicized and this development led to the institution of the ‘Khalsa’ by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699.
The community of the Sikhs was called the ‘Khalsa Panth’ which became a political entity.

10. How did the Chola and Pandya kings contribute to the growth of the Bhakti movement?

Answer:

During the period from the tenth to the twelfth centuries, the Chola and Pandya kings built many elaborate temples around many of the shrines which were visited by the saint-poets.
This helped in strengthening the links between the bhakti tradition and temple worship.

11. What are Khanqahs? What was their function?

Answer:

Khanqahs were houses of rest for travellers especially maintained by a religious order.

The Sufi masters usually held their assemblies in khanqahs.

Devotees of all kinds including members of the royalty and nobility as well as ordinary people gathered in khanqahs to discuss spiritual matters, to seek the blessings of saints in solving their worldly problems, or simply to attend the music and dance sessions.

12. Who was Kabir? How do we know about him?

Answer:

 Kabir probably lived in the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries. He was one of the most influential saints. He was brought up in a family of Muslim ‘julahas’ or weavers settled in or near the city of Benaras, now Varanasi.
 We have very little authentic information about the life of Kabir. We come to know of his ideas from a vast collection of verses called sakhis and pads, which are said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers.

G. Long answer Type Questions

1. Write a brief note on new religious developments in north India.

Answer:  

The period after the thirteenth century witnessed a new wave of the Bhakti movement in north India. This was an age when Brahmanical Hinduism, Islam, Sufism, various streams of Bhakti, and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced one another. Ordinary people such as crafts persons, peasants, traders, etc. would gather to listen with interest to these new saints.

Some like Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak repudiated all orthodox religious.

Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these accessible to all. Tulsidas conceived of God in the form of Rama. His Ramacharitmanas written in Awadhi is significant as an expression of his devotion as well as a literary work.

Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His compositions compiled in the Sursagara, Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari, express his devotion.

Shankaradeva of Assam emphasised devotion to Vishnu and composed poems and plays in Assamese. He began the practice of setting up namghars or houses of recitation and prayer.

Saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai are worth-mentioning here.

Mirabai was a Rajput princess married into the royal family of Mewar in the sixteenth century. She became a disciple of Ravidas, a saint from a caste considered ‘untouchable’. She was devoted to Krishna and composed innumerable bhajans expressing her devotion. Her songs openly challenged upper castes norms and became very popular with the masses. A unique feature of most of the saints is that their works were composed in regional languages and could be sung. Therefore, they became very popular among the common masses and were handed down from generation to generation.

Frequently asked Questions (FAQs) on NCERT Class 7 History Our Pasts-ll Chapter 6 ‘Devotional Paths to the Divine’